Ch.8

Discuss representations and how they are used in thought. What kinds are there in general? How do they differ from each other? What evidence indicates their use in thought?

a. For the most part our thoughts are adaptive. We develop rules for making fast decision’s. The general kinds of representations are analogical representation which is a mental representation that has some of the physical characteristics of an object; it is analogous to the object. The second is symbolic representation which is an abstract mental representation that does not correspond to the physical features of an object or data. Evidence that indicates their thought is analogical corresponds to geographical layouts, and family trees. Symbolic indicates abstract and do not have relationships to physical qualities of objects in the world.

Discuss expected utility theory and how its limitations are shown by the evidence that people use heuristics in decision making and are influenced by framing effects.

Expected utility theory is one normative model of how humans should make decisions. In examining how people make everyday decisions, Tcersky and Kahneman identified several heuristics, the mental short cuts or rules of thumb that people typically use to make decisions. Framing is the effect of presentation on how information is perceived. Framing a decision to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains of at least one alternative can significantly influence the decision making

Discuss how goals are involved in problem solving and at least two strategies that people use for reaching their goals

To solve the problem, the person must use knowledge to determine how to move from the current state to the goal state, often by devising strategies to overcome obstacles. How the person thinks about the problem can help or hinder that person’s ability to find solutions. One strategy is organization of subgoals, using subgoals is important for many problems. Imagine a high school senior has decided she would like to become a doctor. To achieve this goal, she needs first to attain the more immediate subgoals of being admitted to a good college. To get into a good college, she needs to earn good grades in high school. The other is sudden insight sometimes as you stand there pondering the problem, a solution will pop into your head. How does this happen? Insight is the metaphorical mental light bulb that goes on in someone’s head when he or she suddenly realizes the solution to a problem.

Distinguish the three major approaches to intelligence and one major finding from each.

General intelligence, in sense, providing a single IQ score reflects the idea that one general factor underlies intelligence. Although most psychological scientists agree that some form of g exists, they also recognize that intelligence comes in various forms. Fluid intelligence, it is often assessed in nonverbal, more culture-fair intelligence tests. Crystallized intelligence, crystallized intelligence is likely aided by a strong fluid intelligence.

Discuss the concept of general intelligence, fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence and how they are studied.

General intelligence is the idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities. In general, people who are very good at math are also good at writing, problem solving, and other mental challenges. Fluid intelligence is information processing in novel or complex circumstances, such as reasoning, drawing analogies, and thinking quickly, and flexibly. Crystallized intelligence is knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge. It is somewhat analogous to distinguishing between working memory (which is more like fluid intelligence.

Prototype model of the nature concept

Prototype is an approach to object categorization that is based on the premise that within each category, some members are more representative than others. A positive feature of the prototype model is that it allows for flexibility in the representation of concepts.

Use of scripts in thinking about people

According to this theory, we tend to follow general scripts of how to behave in particular settings. At the movies for example we expect to buy a ticket, the cost of which might depend on the moviegoer’s age and the time of day.

The difference between decision making and problem solving

Decision making is attempting to select the best alternative among several options. Problem solving is finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.

How well we do in forecasting how we will feel after various events occur

After a negative event, people engage in strategies that help them feel better, such as rationalizing why it happened and minimizing the events importance. These strategies are generally adaptive in that they protect the sufferers’ mental health-making sense of an event helps reduce its negative emotional consequences.

Validity and how it differs from reliability

Reliability is the extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions. Validity is the extent to which the data collected address the research hypothesis in the way intended.